State v. Philip Morris, Inc.

WRIGHT, J. I. Introduction This appeal arises from a Master Settlement Agreement (“MSA”) between appellees, who are numerous cigarette manufacturers (the “Participating Manufacturers” or “PMs”), 1 and appellant, the State of Maryland (“Maryland”), along with 51 other states and territories (collectively, the “Settling States”). Specifically, it involves the multi-state arbitration of an MSA dispute over the “Non-Participating Manufacturer Adjustment” (“NPM Adjustment”)—a potential reduction to the annual payment that the PMs make to the Settling States under the MSA, which is allocated among those states who failed to diligently enforce certain obligations under the MSA. During the arbitration of the 2003 NPM Adjustment dispute, the PMs reached a settlement (“Term Sheet” agreement) with 22 states (the “Term Sheet States”) before it was determined whether those states were diligent or non-diligent. Maryland and the other “Non-Term Sheet States” were also offered the settlement, but declined to join.

In light of this partial settlement, the arbitrators (a “Panel” of three former ²²⁰ federal judges) were tasked with resolving how the 2003 NPM Adjustment should be allocated to any Non-Term Sheet States who were found non-diligent. On March 12, 2013, the Panel interpreted the MSA’s language and concluded that the NPM Adjustment should be allocated post-settlement pursuant to the “pro rata” method of judgment reduction. After holding individual evidentiary hearings for the Non-Term Sheet States, whose diligence for 2003 was still contested, the Panel concluded that Maryland and five other Non-Term Sheet States were non-diligent and thus subject to the 2003 NPM Adjustment. On September 11, 2013, after assessing Maryland’s enforcement record for 2003, the Panel found that Maryland lacked “a culture of compliance” and that its efforts “fell short of its efforts in earlier years.” Maryland filed motions in the Circuit Court for Baltimore City to vacate the Panel’s awards for the 2003 NPM Adjustment that adopted the pro rata judgment-reduction method and that found Maryland to be non-diligent.

On November 12, 2013, Maryland also filed a motion to compel the PMs to arbitrate Maryland’s diligence for 2004 in a state-specific arbitration, rather than as part of a multi-state arbitration of the entire 2004 Adjustment dispute. On July 28, 2014, the circuit court denied all three motions, and on August 20, 2014, Maryland noted this appeal.

II

Questions Presented We have rephrased Maryland’s questions as follows: 2 ²²¹ 1) Did the circuit court err in refusing to vacate the Panel’s award which adopted the pro rata judgment-reduction method in reallocating the 2003 NPM Adjustment only among the non-diligent, Non-Term Sheet States? 2) Did the circuit court err in refusing to vacate the Panel’s finding that Maryland was not diligent in 2003? 3) Did the circuit court err in failing to order the PMs to arbitrate Maryland’s diligence for 2004 in a state-specific arbitration? For the reasons that follow, we answer only the first question in the affirmative, and reverse the circuit court’s judgment regarding that issue. Accordingly, we remand the case for further proceedings not inconsistent with this opinion.

III

Facts A. MSA In 1998, Maryland and the 51 other Settling States entered the MSA, thus settling their claims for “wrongful marketing and advertising of cigarettes, as well as damages based upon the costs of treating smoking-related illnesses,” against three major cigarette manufacturers—Philip Morris USA, Inc., R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Co., and Lorillard Tobacco Co. (collectively, “Original Participating Manufacturers” or “OPMs”). State v. Philip Moms Inc., 179 Md.App. 140, 142-43 , 944 A.2d 1167 (2008). Since then, more than forty subsequent participating manufacturers (“SPMs”) have joined the MSA. Id. at 145 n. 2, 944 A.2d 1167 .

In exchange for the dismissal of “any pending action and [a] release [of] all past and future claims” against them, the PMs agreed “to restrict the manner in which they market and advertise tobacco products and ... to make a ²²² substantial annual payment to be allocated among the settling states.” Id. at 145 , 944 A.2d 1167 . Pursuant to the MSA, the PMs do not make the annual payment (“MSA Payment”) directly to the Settling States. Id. Rather, each PM is “required to make a single, nationwide annual payment into an escrow account on or before April 15” of each year, the exact amount of which is calculated annually by an “Independent Auditor ... pursuant to a comprehensive formula contained within the MSA.” Id. at 145-46 , 944 A.2d 1167 . “The calculation begins with each original participating manufacturer paying into an escrow account its relative market share of the base amount for the calendar year.” Id. at 146 , 944 A.2d 1167 (citing MSA § IX(e)(l)).

That amount is then subject to several reductions and adjustments, including the NPM Adjustment. Id. (citing MSA §§ IX(c)(j), XI(a)(l)). Thereafter, the funds are “allocated among the settling states according to formulae set forth in the MSA.” Id. at 146 n. 3, 944 A.2d 1167 .

Pursuant to the “allocable shares,” Maryland is entitled to 2.2604570 percent of the PMs’ annual payment. Id. (citing MSA § II(f)). The NPM Adjustment, governed by Section IX(d) of the MSA, is a payment reduction designed to address the PMs’ concern that “they would incur a competitive disadvantage to the non-participating manufacturers [ (“NPMs”) ], who were not subject to the MSA’s strict marketing restrictions and payment obligations.” Id. at 146-47, 944 A.2d 1167 .

Each year, PMs “may be eligible to take a NPM Adjustment if (1) the independent auditor determines that, during the year in question, the participating manufacturers collectively lose more than two percent of their pre-MSA market share to nonparticipating manufacturers and (2) an economic consulting firm determines that the MSA was a ‘significant factor’ contributing to that loss.” Id. at 147 , 944 A.2d 1167 (citing MSA § IX(d)(l)). If these conditions are satisfied, then the PMs are entitled to the NPM Adjustment on their annual payment as to all Settling States, subject to one exception—the “diligence exception.” See MSA § IX(d)(2). ²²³ Pursuant to the diligence exception, “[a] Settling State’s Allocated Payment shall not be subject to an NPM Adjustment ... if such Settling State continuously had a Qualifying Statute ... in full force and effect during the calendar year immediately preceding the year in which the payment in question is due, and diligently enforced the provisions of such statute during such entire calendar year.” MSA § IX(d)(2)(B). The MSA defines a “Qualifying Statute” as a “statute, regulation, law and/or rule ... that effectively and fully neutralizes the cost disadvantages that the [PMs] experience vis-á-vis [NPMs] within such Settling State as a result of [the MSA].” MSA § IX(d)(2)(E). “Maryland enacted the model ‘qualifying statute’ contained in Exhibit T to the MSA, which is codified as Maryland’s Escrow Act [Md. Code (1992, 2010 Repl. Vol.), § 16-401 et seq. of the Business Regulation Article].” Philip Morris Inc., 179 Md.App. at 147 , 944 A.2d 1167 .

It requires all NPMs to: deposit into escrow a fixed sum per cigarette sold that is slightly less than the per-cigarette cost imposed by the MSA on participating manufacturers. These escrowed funds may ultimately be used to satisfy a judgment that the State may obtain against a non-participating manufacturer. If the funds are not so used within twenty-five years, they are returned to the nonparticipating manufacturer. Id. at 148 , 944 A.2d 1167 (internal citations omitted). “[I]f a state has a ‘qualifying statute’ in full force and effect and diligently enforces that statute, the auditor must reallocate that state’s share of the NPM Adjustment among the other states that do not qualify, ‘pro rata in proportion to their respective Allocable Shares.’ ” Id. at 147 , 944 A.2d 1167 (quoting MSA § IX(d)(2)(C) (“Reallocation Provision”)).

In other words, to incentivize the Settling States to be diligent, the MSA provides that the non-diligent States are collectively responsible for the total available NPM Adjustment, including what would have been the shares of the diligent states. Accordingly, the greater the number of diligent states, the larger the amount of NPM Adjustment that is reallocated to non-diligent states. See id. at 163, 944 A.2d ²²⁴ 1167 (“[Tjhe granting of an exemption to one Settling State will inexorably lead to the reallocation of its allocated portion of the NPM Adjustment to all other non-exempt Settling States. Each Settling State thus has a vital interest in the granting or denial of each other Settling State’s individual claim for exemption.”) (Citation omitted); Com. ex rel.

Kane v. Philip Morris USA, Inc., 114 A.3d 37 , 44 (Pa.Cmwlth.Ct. 2015) (“Generally, as the number of diligent states increase, the burden on non-diligent states increases. This is because an increase in the number of diligent states means that there is more adjustment reallocated among a smaller group.”). B. 2003 NPM Adjustment In the present appeal, the primary dispute concerns the NPM Adjustment for 2003. Although the PMs were entitled to take an NPM Adjustment that year, the Independent Auditor decided not to apply it because the Settling States’ diligence in enforcing their respective Qualifying Statutes had not yet been determined.

See Philip Morris Inc., 179 Md. App. at 148-49 , 944 A.2d 1167 (“[T]he participating manufacturers requested that the auditor apply the 2003 NPM Adjustment to their April 2006 payments. Maryland and the other settling states, however, urged the auditor to deny the NPM Adjustment on the ground that the settling states ‘diligently enforced’ their qualifying statutes.”). Therefore, the PMs requested arbitration pursuant to MSA § XI(c), id. at 143, 944 A.2d 1167 , which states: Any dispute, controversy or claim arising out of or relating to calculations performed by, or any determinations made by, the Independent Auditor (including, without limitation, any dispute concerning the operation or application of any of the adjustments, reductions, offsets, carry-forwards and allocations described in subsection IX(j) or subsection XI(i)) shall be submitted to binding arbitration before a panel of three neutral arbitrators, each of whom shall be a former Article III federal judge. Each of the two sides to the dispute shall select one arbitrator.

The two arbitrators so selected shall select the third arbitrator. The arbitration ²²⁵ shall be governed by the United States Federal Arbitration Act [ 9 U.S.C. § 1 et seq.]. On May 18, 2006, Maryland asked the Circuit Court for Baltimore City “for declaratory relief, declaring that the auditor properly determined not to reduce the participating manufacturers’ MSA payments to reflect a NPM Adjustment.” Philip Morris Inc., 179 Md.App. at 149 , 944 A.2d 1167 (footnote omitted). After hearing arguments on October 5, 2006, the circuit court issued an order on January 19, 2007, compelling arbitration, and we affirmed that decision on March 27, 2008.

Id. at 150,167 , 944 A.2d 1167 . In December, 2008, the PMs entered into an Agreement Regarding Arbitration (“ARA”) with almost every Settling State, including Maryland. According to the ARA, “[t]he 2003 NPM Adjustment shall be resolved through [a nationwide arbitration] pursuant to Section XI(c) of the MSA” in order to determine: 1. Whether the Independent Auditor was correct in not applying the 2003 NPM Adjustment to the [PMs’] 2006 or prior annual payments.... 2.

Whether the June 2003 settlement agreements release in whole or in part, or provide a basis for excluding evidence relating to, the 2003 NPM Adjustment. 3. Whether individual Settling States diligently enforced a Qualifying Statute in 2003.... 4. (a) Whether under Section XI(i)(2)(A) of the MSA, a transfer from the Disputed Payments Account to a [PM] should be accomplished through a transfer from the Disputed Payments Account to such [PM] or through an offset in favor of such [PM] accompanied by a transfer to the Settling States; and (b) under Section XI(i)(l)(B) of the MSA, under what circumstances, if any, should a transfer be made from the Disputed Payments Account to a Settling State that is determined to have diligently enforced a Qualifying Statute or whose diligent enforcement the [PMs] no longer contest. ²²⁶ 5. To the extent a Settling State may assert that the 2008 NPM Adjustment should be applied to another Settling State pursuant to Section IX(d)(2) of the MSA, a determination as to the validity of any such assertion.

The Panel 3 began proceedings on July 2, 2010, and entered various preliminary orders governing the conduct of the hearings. For example, on January 19, 2011, it concluded that the Settling States “must bear the burden of proving that they diligently enforced their respective Qualifying Statutes for purposes of the 2003 NPM Adjustment.” In particular, the Panel determined that “no language in the MSA supports a finding that the States can by-pass an inquiry regarding whether they satisfied their contractual obligation for avoiding a payment adjustment through the NPM Adjustment.” (Citation omitted). By order dated May 23, 2011, the Panel added that “although the conditions to application of the NPM Adjustment under section IX(d)(l) had been met, without the diligent enforcement determination, there was no ‘Available NPM Adjustment for the Auditor to apply and there would be no Available NPM Adjustment unless and until the diligent enforcement determination was made.’ ” Thus, according to the Panel, the Independent Auditor could not apply the 2003 NPM Adjustment and properly declined to do so. Then, in an order dated July 1, 2011, the Panel concluded, in pertinent part: (3) Any Settling State whose diligent enforcement for the year 2003 is not contested by any PM or State[ 4 ] will be deemed [ ] by the Independent Auditor for purposes of ²²⁷ Section IX(d)(2)(B)-(C) of the MSA as a Settling State that diligently enforced its Qualifying Statute for that year only and is therefore [ ] not subject [to] the 2003 NPM Adjustment.

(4) The share of the 2003 NPM Adjustment (if any) of a Settling State whose diligent enforcement is not contested by any PM or State, will be governed by the reallocation provisions of Sections IX(d)(2) and IX (d)(4) of the MSA, and will thus be reallocated among all Settling States that did not diligently enforce a Qualifying Statute during 2003 as provided in those provisions. In that order, the Panel noted that “[b]ecause a state bears the burden of proof when its claim of diligent enforcement [ ] is not challenged does not mean that there must be a hearing when the claim is unchallenged.” Rather, “the burden to prove diligent [] enforcement comes into play only when a state’s contested claim is required to [be] resolved.” On or about November 3, 2011, the PMs filed a notice of their intent to contest the diligence of 35 Settling States, including Maryland. Thereafter, the Panel scheduled individual evidentiary hearings for each of those 35 Settling States. A hearing devoted to Maryland’s enforcement evidence took place from 8:30 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. on October 22-23, 2012, and from 8:30 a.m. to 3:30 p.m. on October 24, 2012.

During that time, Maryland presented the testimony of two lay witnesses, one document summary witness, and three expert witnesses. Meanwhile, the PMs had three expert witnesses testify on their behalf. On or about December 17, 2012, before the Panel had finished all of the state-specific hearings, the PMs and 19 of the Settling States “agreed to a Term Sheet for settlement” that purported to “resolve[ ] the 2003-12 NPM Adjustments as to the signatory States and revise[ ] the NPM Adjustment provision as to those States for the years following 2012.” All of the remaining Settling States were invited to join the settlement, and three more did. Maryland declined the invitation. ²²⁸ The 22 total Term Sheet States had an aggregate allocable share of approximately 46% of the NPM Adjustment.

Of those 22 states, the PMs had contested the diligence of 20. The Term Sheet, which was to become binding “upon the Panel’s approval,” did not address the MSA’s Reallocation Provision—in particular, its effect on the reallocation of the 2003 NPM Adjustment among the Non-Term Sheet States. In January 2013, the PMs and Term Sheet States filed a Proposed Stipulated Partial Award with the Panel, presenting alternatives for “how the 2003 NPM Adjustment will be allocated among the [Non-Term Sheet] States in light of the settlement.” On February 22, 2013, many of the Non-Term Sheet States, including Maryland, filed a brief in opposition to the Proposed Stipulated Partial Award. In pertinent part, they argued that “the reallocation provisions of the proposed award are contrary to the MSA, adversely affect the majority states, and are not remedied by the proposed set-offs.” Particularly, they urged: If the Panel chooses to enter an award regarding the settlement, the order should instruct the Independent Auditor to treat any contested [Term Sheet] State as non-diligent for purposes of calculating the allocation of the NPM Adjustment.

That result is mandated by the plain language of the MSA unless and until the contested [Term Sheet] States prove their diligence. The MSA’s reallocation structure requires a determination as to the diligence of each State because each State’s potential exposure to an NPM Adjustment depends on every other State’s diligence. The MSA’s reallocation procedure requires that each State be determined diligent or not diligent and contains no exception for a partial settlement. (Footnote omitted).

After hearing argument on the issues surrounding the Proposed Stipulated Partial Award, the Panel issued a Stipulated Partial Settlement and Award (“Partial Settlement Award”) ²²⁹ on March 12, 2013. 5 At the outset, the Panel noted that “the MSA does not directly speak as to the process to be used when some States settle diligent enforcement and some do not.” The Panel then ruled that it “ha[d] jurisdiction to rule on the issues raised concerning the MSA reallocation provisions and to determine how the 2003 NPM Adjustment will be allocated among the [Non-Term Sheet] States in light of the settlement.” According to the Panel, its “jurisdiction to interpret and determine the operation of the reallocation provisions is no less where a State is no longer contested because of a settlement.” Turning to the merits, the Panel concluded, in pertinent part: 1. In light of the settlement, the 2003 NPM Adjustment will be allocated among the [Non-Term Sheet] States as follows. The dollar amount of the 2003 NPM Adjustment will be reduced by a percentage equal to the aggregate Allocable Shares of the [Term Sheet] States as of the date of the Panel’s Final Award---- The Independent Auditor will treat the [Term Sheet] States as not subject to the 2003 NPM Adjustment, as that Adjustment amount is reduced as provided above, will be governed by the reallocation provisions of Sections IX(d)(2) and IX(d)(4) of the MSA, and will thus be reallocated among all [Non-Term Sheet] States that did not diligently enforce a Qualifying Statute during 2003 as provided in those provisions. The maximum portion of the 2003 NPM Adjustment that can be applied to a [Non-Term Sheet] State remains as provided by Section IX(d)(2)(D) of the MSA. 2.

This judgment reduction is appropriate and adequate under the MSA and governing law. Where multiple parties have a potential shared contractual obligation and some of them settle and some do not, the non-settling parties cannot ²³⁰ necessarily block the settlement, but may be entitled to a judgment reduction. The “three standard methods for reducing judgment against non-settling defendants after a partial settlement” are “pro rata (court divides the amount of the total judgment by the number of settling and non-settling defendants, regardless of each defendant’s culpability), proportionate fault (after a partial settlement and trial of the non[-]settling defendants, the jury determines the relative culpability of all the defendants and the non-settling defendant pays a commensurate percentage of the total judgment), and pro tanto (the court reduces the non-settling defendant’s liability for the judgment against him by the amount previously paid by the settling defendants, without regard to proportionate fault).” 3. Where non-settling defendants are given the protection of the applicable judgment-reduction method required under the contract and law, they are not prejudiced by the partial settlement. 4.

Under Paragraph 1, the [Non-Term Sheet] States receive the pro rata reduction, under which the dollar amount of the 2003 NPM Adjustment will be reduced by a percentage equal to the aggregate Allocable Shares of the [Term Sheet] States. Construing the parties’ contract, the Panel concludes that the MSA reallocation provisions indicate that the pro rata method is appropriate. These provisions use the specific term “pro rata,” stating that the shares of diligent States are to be “reallocated among all other Settling States pro rata in proportion to their respective Allocable Shares.” MSA § IX(d)(2)(C) (emphasis added); see also MSA § IX(d)(2)(D) (“pro rata in proportion to their respective Allocable Shares”). More fundamentally, the MSA also provides that the reallocation is not done on a relative fault basis.

The amount of a diligent State’s share that is reallocated is its pro rata share of the whole, not an amount derived from its particular fault level. Likewise, the amount of reallocated share that a non-diligent State receives is derived from its pro rata share of the liable States, not its fault level. If the reallocation of diligent ²³¹ States’ shares is done on a pro rata basis in this way, the Panel reads the MSA as likewise meaning that a judgment reduction arising from some States’ settlement of the diligent enforcement issue should be pro rata as well. (Internal citations omitted).

Addressing the Non-Term Sheet States’ objections, the Panel stated that the Partial Settlement Award and the Term Sheet “do not legally prejudice or adversely affect the [Non-Term Sheet] States.” It continued: The Panel does not agree with the Objecting States’ contention that all [Term Sheet] States must be treated as non-diligent for the purposes of the 2003 NPM Adjustment. There is no basis in the facts to assume that every [Term Sheet] State was non-diligent in 2003. Moreover, the Objecting States’ position does not reflect any of the three standard methods of judgment reduction. Such an assumption would produce a considerably larger reduction in the [Non-Term Sheet] States’ potential obligations than any of the standard methods.

It is also contrary to the underlying principle of judgment reduction that, because a settlement is not tantamount to an admission of liability, settling defendants are not regarded as necessarily culpable or liable. The Objecting States argue that the MSA reallocation provisions must be wholly inapplicable to a State’s share unless there is an actual determination that the State was diligent. They claim that any approach by which any State’s share is otherwise subject to reallocation is an “amendment” to the MSA requiring their consent. But the MSA does not directly speak as to the process to be used when some States settle diligent enforcement and some do not.

It is thus within the Panel’s jurisdiction to interpret the contract in light of governing law to determine what the appropriate process and judgment reduction is where there is a partial settlement of diligent enforcement involving fewer than all of the States. There is thus no “amendment” to the MSA in the Panel doing so. Should any Objecting State, found by the Panel to be non-diligent, have a good faith belief that the pro rata deduction does not adequately ²³² compensate them for a [Term Sheet] State’s removal from the re-allocation pool, their relief, if any, is by appeal to their individual MSA court. The cut-off date for interstate suits set forth in the Panel’s “no contest” order, is not applicable to such procedure.

(Internal citation omitted). On September 11, 2013, the Panel issued diligence rulings for the remaining 15 Non-Term Sheet States whose diligence had been contested by the PMs (“Final Awards”). The Panel determined that six of those states, including Maryland, failed to diligently enforce their Qualifying Statutes. In its Final Award for Maryland, the Panel began its analysis with “common” findings and conclusions for all States, including the general standard and specific factors that it had used to objectively assess the diligence of each contested State.

The Panel explained that it had interpreted “diligent enforcement” to mean “an ongoing and intentional consideration of the requirements of a Settling State’s Qualifying Statute, and a significant attempt by the Settling State to meet those requirements, taking into account a Settling State’s competing laws and policies that may conflict with its MSA contractual obligations.” “In order to objectively assess a Settling State’s diligent enforcement in light of that definition,” the Panel also considered a list of eight factors: a. Collection Rate b. Lawsuits Filed c. Gathering Reliable Data d.

Resources Allocated to Enforcement e. Preventing Non-Compliant NPMs from Future Sales f. Legislation Enacted g. Actions Short of Legislation h.

Efforts to be Aware of NAAG [National Association of Attorneys General] and Other States’ Enforcement Efforts ²³³ Applying these factors “objectively” to assess Maryland’s diligent enforcement, the Panel concluded that “Maryland failed to meet its burden of proof.” According to the Panel, “Maryland did not exhibit a culture of compliance” for most of 2003, and its “efforts in 2003 actually fell short of its efforts in earlier years.” As such, it ruled that Maryland was “subject to an NPM Adjustment pursuant to Section IX(d)(2)(B) of the [MSA].” C. Circuit Court On March 26, 2013, following the Panel’s issuance of the Partial Settlement Award but prior to its issuance of the Final Awards, Maryland filed a “Petition to Vacate Arbitration Award” in its MSA court, the Circuit Court for Baltimore City. In its petition, Maryland argued that the Partial Settlement Award “vastly exceed[ed] the scope of the Panel’s power under the MSA, purported] to alter the terms of the MSA without the concurrence of Maryland and other states, and fail[ed] to adhere to clear and undisputed contractual language.” Acknowledging that “the full implications of the Partial [Settlement] Award [would] not be known until the arbitration is fully concluded,” Maryland requested that the circuit court “enter an order setting the briefing and hearing schedule [as proposed by Maryland], or, in the alternative vacating the Partial [Settlement] Award without further argument.” On November 12, 2013, Maryland filed a “Motion to Compel a Maryland-Specific Arbitration on the Issue of Whether Maryland Diligently Enforced during 2004.” In that request, Maryland averred that “[t]he MSA entitles the State to its own arbitration of the dispute over whether it diligently enforced” its Qualifying Statute in 2004. Furthermore, Maryland argued that “[a] State-specific arbitration would advance the fairness, efficiency, and other purposes of arbitration, while the only alternative to an individual arbitration, a multi-state arbitration, would defeat those same purposes.” Soon thereafter, on November 18, 2013, Maryland filed a “Petition to Vacate Arbitration Award Finding that [Mary ²³⁴ land] Did Not Diligently Enforce its Qualifying Statute During 2003.” In that petition, Maryland contended that “[t]he Panel’s Final Award must be vacated because the Panel refused to hear evidence material to the controversy.” Following a hearing on the motions on February 19, 2014, the circuit court entered a memorandum opinion and order on July 28, 2014, denying all three of Maryland’s petitions. In reviewing the Panel’s decisions, the court applied the vacatur standards of the FAA, which provide that “a reviewing court shall vacate an arbitration award, if the arbitrators exceeded their powers due to an error in their construction of the agreement; or the arbitrators were guilty of misconduct or misbehavior by which the rights of any party have been prejudiced.” With regard to the Panel’s issuance of the Partial Settlement Award, the circuit court found: [T]he Partial Settlement Award and the NPM reallocation adjustment disputes do arise from the MSA; and are all clearly subject to the arbitration agreement and within the Panel’s authority.

Accordingly, this Court finds that the Panel did not lack jurisdiction, nor did it exceed its powers in interpreting the MSA and determining the appropriate method for reallocating the 2003 NPM Adjustment post-settlement. Further, this Court finds the Panel’s conclusion of the pro-rata method to be based on a reasonable analysis of the MSA and review of applicable judgment-reduction principles of contract law.... While Maryland argues that the Panel disregarded the plain language of the MSA, this Court finds this argument to be without merit as the Panel did not and could not disregard the language of the MSA, as § IX(d)(2)(C)-(D) of the MSA is silent on the issue of the reallocation of the NPM Adjustment among non-settling states where diligence is no longer contested due to settlement.... This Court does not find any indication in the Panel’s Award that the Panel was substituting its own notions of fairness and/or economic justice.

Rather, the Panel was engaged in a good ²³⁵ faith interpretation of the MSA and applicable law. Therefore, this Court finds that Maryland has failed to meet the requisite burden to establish that the Panel, in issuing the Partial Settlement Award, engaged in misconduct by failing to construe the MSA or by substituting its own notion of fairness and/or economic justice.... (Internal citations and footnotes omitted) (emphasis in original). With regard to its denial of Maryland’s request for a state-specific arbitration, the circuit court concluded that “the only reasonable interpretation of the MSA is that nationwide arbitration is required.” The court explained that, under the text of the MSA’s arbitration provision, the “two sides to the dispute” are “the MSA States in opposition to the downward adjustment, and the PMs.” The circuit court also stated that “[t]he only way for the payment structure to remain ‘nationwide and unitary,’ as intended, is for the arbitration itself to be nationwide and unitary, since the diligence determinations made at the arbitration are directly tied to the reallocation provision.” (Citing Philip Moms, Inc., 179 Md.App. at 162 , 944 A.2d 1167 ) (footnote omitted).

Finally, with regard to the Panel’s Final Award, the circuit court found that the Panel did not “refuse[ ] to hear pertinent and material evidence,” as Maryland alleged, because “Maryland never requested the Panel to consider the comparative non-diligence of the contested ‘term sheet states,’ ” nor did Maryland make “any substantive argument to the Panel that the Panel needed to consider the enforcement record of the ‘term sheet states’ when making diligence determinations for the non-settling states.” The court also noted that Maryland’s argument failed on the merits because “it [was] clear that the Panel’s diligence determination focused on the objective standard and assessing diligence that was common to all states, and then applying that standard to each State’s individual enforcement for 2003,” instead of comparing Maryland with any other contested state. (Emphasis and citation omitted). The court then concluded by noting that “[e]ven if some, most or all of the ‘term sheet states’ were less diligent than ²³⁶ Maryland, from the facts there is no guarantee that the Panel would have found Maryland to be diligent.” Additional facts will be included as they become relevant to our discussion, below. IY.

Standard op Review At the outset, we must determine the applicable standard of review in a case such as this, where the Panel issued an award in an arbitration governed by the United States Federal Arbitration Act (“FAA”)—as mandated by the MSA—but directed aggrieved parties to appeal to their respective state courts. Maryland contends that “the standard of review is governed by Maryland law and is de novo.” Although Maryland acknowledges that this Court may rely on decisions interpreting the FAA because the Maryland Uniform Arbitration Act (“MUAA”) is the FAA’s state analogue, Maryland maintains that we are not bound by the federal procedural provisions of the FAA. Instead, Maryland avers that this Court must look to the pertinent state law relating to arbitration agreements to determine whether the circuit court erred in denying the relief sought. In response, the PMs argue that the circuit court correctly applied “the FAA’s extremely narrow judicial-review standards,” and that Maryland’s claim that a de novo standard applies is “both waived and wrong.” First, the PMs contend that “Maryland waived [its] argument by not raising it below.” Specifically, the PMs note that Maryland “repeatedly acknowledged that the MSA requires application of the FAA” through its opening and subsequent briefs, and its post-hearing submission.

Second, relying on the MSA, the PMs aver that “the FAA will ‘govern’ MSA arbitrations” and, thus, the circuit court acted properly in applying the vacatur standards of the FAA. Third, the PMs argue that “to the extent ... that Maryland law would authorize broader judicial review in this case, it would be preempted by the FAA.” (Emphasis in original). Lastly, the PMs contend that “the Maryland standard of review is equally or nearly as narrow as the FAA ²³⁷ standard,” and its application would not, therefore, lead to a different result. We agree with Maryland that judicial review of the arbitrator’s decision in this case is governed by Maryland law.

We explain and address each of the PMs’ contentions. The PMs first argue that Maryland waived its present claim by not raising it in the circuit court, but they cite no authority to support their position that the applicable standard of review can be waived. Indeed, although no Maryland court has ruled on this matter, several federal courts have stated that “a party cannot ‘waive’ the proper standard of review by failing to argue it.” Brown v. Smith, 551 F.3d 424 , 428 n. 2 (6th Cir.2008) (citations omitted); see also Ward v. Stephens, 777 F.3d 250 , 257 n. 3 (5th Cir.2015) (“A party cannot waive, concede, or abandon the applicable standard of review.”) (Citations omitted), petition for cert. filed, U.S. No. 14-10033 (June 2, 2015); Gardner v. Galetka, 568 F.3d 862, 879 (10th Cir.2009) (holding that “the standard of review under AEDPA cannot be waived by the parties”) (citations omitted); Vizcaino v. Microsoft Corp., 120 F.3d 1006 , 1022 n. 4 (9th Cir.1997) (en banc) (O’Scannlain, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part) (“[A] party cannot, by waiver or estoppel, change the applicable standard of review.”); Ingle v. Metro. Life Ins.

Co., 947 F.Supp.2d 1163, 1167 (N.D.Okla.2013) (citing Izzarelli v. Rexene Products Co., 24 F.3d 1506, 1519 (5th Cir.1994), and stating that “at least one circuit court has explicitly held that a party cannot waive the standard of review in an ERISA case”). This is because it is “the court, not the parties, [who] must determine the standard of review[.]” Worth v. Tyer, 276 F.3d 249 , 262 n. 4 (7th Cir.2001) (citation omitted). Therefore, “[s]uch a determination remains for this court to make for itself.” K & T Enterprises, Inc. v. Zurich Ins. Co., 97 F.3d 171,175 (6th Cir.1996). 6 Next, citing the MSA, the PMs argue that judicial review of the Panel’s decision is governed by the FAA.

In ²³⁸ advancing this argument, the PMs correctly note that, pursuant to MSA § XI(c), NPM Adjustment disputes are subject to an “arbitration [that] ‘shall be governed by the [FAA].’ ” (Emphasis added). But, they fail to acknowledge that the MSA does not mandate that judicial review of such an arbitration award would be governed by the FAA as well. Rather MSA § XVTII(n), entitled “Governing Law,” provides that the MSA “shall be governed by the laws of the relevant Settling State, without regard to conflict of law rules of such Settling State.” See also MSA § VII(a) (stating that the MSA Court retains exclusive jurisdiction); and MSA § II(p) (defining “Court” as the “respective court in each Settling State”). Alternatively, the PMs contend that “the FAA standard would govern under constitutional preemption principles” because applying a broader state law review standard “would undercut the FAA’s national policy favoring arbitration with just [a] limited review” and “would thwart the FAA’s primary purpose of ensuring that private agreements to arbitrate are enforced according to their terms.” (Citations omitted).

Contrary to the PMs’ contention, however, the Maryland Court of Appeals has repeatedly stated that “our procedural rules are not preempted by national policy favoring arbitration^]” Addison v. Lochearn Nursing Home, LLC, 411 Md. 251, 287 , 983 A.2d 138 (2009) (citing Wells v. Chevy Chase Bank, F.S.B., 363 Md. 232, 242 , 768 A.2d 620 (2001) (“we conclude that Maryland procedural law ... is not preempted by the FAA”)); accord Walther v. Sovereign Bank, 386 Md. 412, 423 , 872 A.2d 735 (2005) (“In enforcing ... the FAA, however, state courts are not bound by the federal procedural provisions of the FAA ... but may generally apply their own procedures.”). 7 In fact, the ²³⁹ United States Supreme Court has stated that “[t]he FAA contains no express pre-emptive provision, nor does it reflect a congressional intent to occupy the entire field of arbitration.” Volt Info. Sciences, Inc. v. Bd. of Trustees of Leland Stanford Junior Univ., 489 U.S. 468, 477 , 109 S.Ct. 1248 , 108 L.Ed.2d 488 (1989) (citation omitted). Instead, “state law may ... be pre-empted to the extent that it actually conflicts with federal law—that is, to the extent that it ‘stands as an obstacle to the accomplishment and execution of the full purposes and objectives of Congress.’” Id. (quoting Hines v. Davidowitz, 312 U.S. 52, 67 , 61 S.Ct. 399 , 85 L.Ed. 581 (1941)).

Therefore, in order for the PMs to prevail on their argument, it must be evident that application of the Maryland standard of review would not only serve to frustrate the underlying goals of the FAA, but would also result in a failure to carry out the arbitration provision of the MSA as the parties had intended. Application of the Maryland standard of review does neither. As the PMs recognize in their briefs and as we shall further explain below, “[t]he Maryland arbitration statute is virtually identical in substance to the FAA,” and would also promote the goal of enforcing arbitration agreements. (Citation omitted).

See Hall St. Assocs., L.L.C. v. Mattel, Inc., 552 U.S. 576, 590 , 128 S.Ct. 1396 , 170 L.Ed.2d 254 (2008) (“The FAA is not the only way into court for parties wanting review of arbitration awards: they may contemplate enforcement under state statutory or common law, for example, where judicial review of different scope is arguable.”). And, with regard to the terms of the parties’ agreement to arbitrate, we have already explained that application of Maryland law would not violate any MSA provision governing post-arbitration judicial review. ²⁴⁰ Having determined that Maryland standard of review applies in reviewing the Panel’s decisions, we direct our attention to the applicable statute governing the vacation of an arbitration award, Md. Code (1973, 2013 Repl. Vol.), § 3-224(b) of the Courts and Judicial Proceedings Article (“CJP”), which provides: The court shall vacate an award if: (1) An award was procured by corruption, fraud, or other undue means; (2) There was evident partiality by an arbitrator appointed as a neutral, corruption in any arbitrator, or misconduct prejudicing the rights of any party; (3) The arbitrators exceeded their powers; (4) The arbitrators refused to postpone the hearing upon sufficient cause being shown for the postponement, refused to hear evidence material to the controversy, or otherwise so conducted the hearing, contrary to the provisions of § 3-213 of this subtitle, as to prejudice substantially the rights of a party; or (5) There was no arbitration agreement as described in § 3-206 of this subtitle, the issue was not adversely determined in proceedings under § 3-208 of this subtitle, and the party did not participate in the arbitration hearing without raising the objection. Here, Maryland’s issues with the Panel’s decisions are rooted in CJP § 3-224(b)(3) and (4).

In the past, Maryland courts have held that “arbitrators exceed their powers not only when the substance of their award lacks a scintilla of rationality, but also where the award is