Werbowsky v. Collomb

WILNER, Judge. This is a stockholder’s derivative suit. A minority stockholder in Lafarge Corporation sued the directors of the corporation, in the name of the corporation, alleging breach of fiduciary duty, waste, and gross negligence. 1 Those claims arose out of a transaction between Lafarge and its controlling stockholder, a French corporation named Lafarge S.A. (LSA), in which certain assets earlier purchased by LSA were sold to Lafarge for an amount that, in the plaintiffs’ view, exceeded their worth by $190 million.

The issue before us is not whether the plaintiffs have a valid complaint but whether, due to their failure to make a demand for remedial action on the corporation prior to filing suit, they ⁵⁸⁶ are able to proceed with their lawsuit. The Circuit Court for Montgomery County, in granting summary judgment for the defendants, concluded that such a demand, unless it would have been futile, is a prerequisite to filing a derivative action; that the demand would not have been futile in this case; and, for that reason, the failure on the part of the plaintiffs to make it could not be excused. The issue raises questions of both substantive corporate law and judicial procedure. In the end, we shall affirm.

BACKGROUND Most of the underlying facts in this case are not in substantial dispute, although the parties certainly disagree over some of the inferences that may properly be drawn from those facts. Lafarge is chartered in Maryland but headquartered in Virginia. It produces and sells concrete, cement, and gypsum wallboard, and engages in road building and other related activities. LSA is a French corporation that owns approximately 52% of the outstanding shares of Lafarge and is, therefore, its majority and controlling shareholder.

The remainder of Lafarge’s 70 million shares are publicly traded on the New York, Toronto, and Montreal Stock Exchanges. In 1995, LSA began planning an acquisition of Redland PLC, a United Kingdom construction materials company with business assets and operations around the world, including substantial operations conducted through subsidiaries in the United States and Canada. In early 1996, LSA inquired of Lafarge’s senior management whether Lafarge would be interested in any of Redland’s American or Canadian assets, and the answer at the time was “no.” In October, 1997, LSA commenced a hostile takeover of Redland. Bertrand Collomb, who served as Chairman of the Board of Directors of both Lafarge and LSA and CEO of LSA, informed the Lafarge directors of LSA’s offer and of its intention, in the event of a successful takeover, to propose to the Lafarge board the acquisition by Lafarge of some of Redland’s American and Canadian assets.

Although Red- ⁵⁸⁷ land’s management initially resisted the bid, by December, LSA had acquired a majority of the shares, paying a premium for them. On December 11, 1997, Collomb reported to the Lafarge board the success of the takeover and of LSA’s intent, in the near future, to formulate an offer to Lafarge regarding certain of Redland’s North American assets and operations. He said that he had confirmed with Harold Kleinman, whose firm served as outside counsel to the Lafarge board, that it would be necessary to appoint a special committee of independent directors with authority to take all steps, including the appointment of a financial advisor, to consider the offer that LSA intended to make. In that regard, he called a special meeting of the board for December 16 to consider interim arrangements for the oversight of Redland’s North American operations pending action on the proposed transaction.

Lafarge has 16 directors. The parties now agree, for purposes of this case, that six of those directors — Messrs. Collomb, Kasriel, Rose, Lefevre, Murdoch, and Piecuch — are “inside” or non-independent directors in that, at the relevant times, they also served as officers or directors of LSA. The parties also agree that three of the remaining directors— Messrs.

Rodgers, Dauman, and MacAvoy — are “outside” independent directors who are not conflicted or controlled by LSA. They disagree about the status of the other seven directors — Ms. Malone and Messrs. McDonald, Cohen, Southern, Redfern, Buell, and Nadeau. The meeting called by Collomb was held by telephone.

Fourteen of the directors— all but Dauman and Malone — participated. The minutes of that meeting show that Collomb iterated the intention of LSA to offer to Lafarge certain North American assets of Redland and his view that it would be in the best interest of the corporation for the board to appoint a special committee of independent directors to evaluate the offer and make a recommendation to the board with respect to it. After discussion, the board selected five of their members — Cohen, Malone, McDonald, Rodgers, and Southern — to serve as the special committee to evaluate and make a determination with respect to the anticipated LSA offer. The resolution authorized the ⁵⁸⁸ special committee to retain (1) independent legal counsel, (2) investment advisors to review and evaluate the acquisition proposal and, if the committee determined the acquisition was in the best interest of Lafarge, to provide an opinion as to whether the price is fair to the shareholders from a financial point of view, and (3) other independent advisors and consultants as it deemed appropriate.

The special committee met later that day. It elected McDonald as chair and appointed Kleinman to serve as counsel to the special committee. At its next meeting, on December 30, the special committee received presentations from two investment banking firms — Donaldson, Lufkin & Jenrette and SBC Warburg Dillon Read (Dillon Read) — and selected the latter as its investment banking advisor. On January 19, 1988, the committee met with the senior officers of Lafarge and with the team from Dillon Read.

It was reported that, in addition to Dillon Read, a number of other consultants had been retained, including the accounting firms of Coopers & Lybrand and Arthur Andersen & Co. and the consulting firm of Trinity Associates. Lafarge’s chief financial officer and senior vice president, Larry Waisanen, noted that approximately 100 people were involved in the due diligence effort. The Dillon Read team summarized the role their firm would play in performing confirmatory due diligence, analyzing the proposed transaction, and determining the fairness of any proposed transaction from a financial point of view. The offer from LSA was expected on January 23.

The committee designated Waisanen as the principal negotiator of specific terms, to be supported by advisors from Dillon Read, Arthur Andersen, and Thompson & Knight. Eventually, three separate teams were created to evaluate the LSA proposal, from both the financial and operational aspects. The price initially proposed by LSA for the Redland assets was $785 million. Between the receipt of the offer and mid-March, 1998, the evaluation teams reviewed the proposal and made reports to the special committee.

In January and February, McDonald and Cohen, on behalf of the special committee, met in Zurich, Switzerland, with Collomb and ⁵⁸⁹ Kasriel, representing LSA, to discuss a number of issues, including price. At one point, according to Cohen, the committee members made clear that the price would have to be within the Dillon Read fairness range. Meanwhile, the special committee continued to meet on a regular basis to consider the progress being made with respect to the due diligence undertaking and various other aspects of the transaction. Minutes showed meetings on January 19 and 30, February 5 and 9, and March 6, 1998.

On March 3, 1998, Dillon Read recommended to Waisanen that Lafarge acquire three properties of Redland — Western Mobile, Inc., which operated in Colorado, Redland Genstar, Inc., which operated in Maryland, and Redland Quarries, Inc., which operated in Ontario' — and opined that (1) a price of $650 million was in line with financial valuation, excluding value for strategic opportunity, improvement of portfolio, future expansion of Lafarge’s business, and additional synergies and improvements, and (2) realistically, to reach an agreement, the purchase price would have to be in the range of $670 to $695 million. On March 15, McDonald and Cohen had their final negotiating session with Collomb and Kasriel and agreed on a price of $690 million, net of debt, and on other contract terms that McDonald and Cohen regarded as favorable. 2 That same day, March 15, the special committee met with MaeAvoy and Redfern, who were regarded by the committee as independent directors, Waisanen, Kleinman, inside counsel for Lafarge, and representatives from Dillon Read. McDonald reported on the negotiations and the major terms. Copies of the proposed contract for the purchase of Redland’s United States assets had been submitted to the members of the special committee, and McDonald noted that a similar agreement would shortly be prepared with respect to the Canadian assets.

According to the minutes of the meeting, there fol ⁵⁹⁰ lowed an extensive discussion of various aspects of the agreement. The representative from Dillon Read stated that, on the basis of the information currently available, his firm would be able to deliver a fairness opinion with respect to the price and terms described by McDonald. After further discussion, the committee adopted a resolution approving the transaction and recommending it to the Lafarge board. The following day, the full board of Lafarge approved the recommendation of the special committee and the purchase of the three companies, in the form of the stock and asset purchase agreements previously submitted to the members, with the price not to exceed $690 million.

On March 18 — one day after announcement of the transaction and without any communication with the company or its directors — this suit was filed, alleging, in a general way, that Lafarge had overpaid for the assets purchased from LSA and charging the directors with breach of their fiduciary duty and with the waste of corporate assets and gross negligence. The complaint alleged that any pre-suit demand on the directors would have been futile because (1) a majority of the board and a majority of the allegedly independent directors actively participated in the wrongful acts at issue and, by reason of the personal financial benefit they would realize through the proposed acquisition, they each had an irreconcilable conflict of interest regarding the prosecution of the action, (2) they could not defend their actions by any alleged independent business judgment since the wrongful acts alleged constitute a breach of their fiduciary duties and the waste of corporate assets, and (3) it was likely that, by reason of language in the corporation’s directors’ and officers’ liability insurance policies, the corporation would be precluded from bringing an action against the directors. The complaint also alleged that any demand upon the stockholders to prosecute the action would be futile, one, because, with some 70 million shares outstanding, such a demand would be impractical, and, two, failure of a demand was excusable because LSA was the majority stockholder. ⁵⁹¹ The defendants responded to the complaint with a motion to dismiss based on lack of jurisdiction over the foreign directors, who had no contact with Maryland, insufficiency of process, and failure to make demand on the directors for remedial action. With respect to the failure of demand defense, they averred that (1) a demand was not futile simply because the board contained some interested members and that, even if a majority of the board members were interested directors, the law allows the board to appoint a special litigation committee consisting of independent directors to consider the objective merits of the proposed lawsuit; (2) demand was not excused under Maryland law merely because a majority of independent directors approved the transaction; (3) the plaintiffs did not explain what personal benefit the directors received from the transaction other than payment for continued service on the Lafarge board and that alone did not establish the futility of a demand; and (4) demand was not excused because of any provisions in the corporate officers’ and directors’ liability insurance policies.

The defendants also urged that the plaintiff was not excused from making a pre-suit demand on the stockholders, which they claimed was a prerequisite under Maryland law, either because LSA was a majority stockholder or because of practical difficulties. The court granted the motion to dismiss, solely on the basis that the plaintiff had not sufficiently alleged corporate waste. That led to the amended complaint that is now before us. In that complaint, also charging breach of fiduciary duty, waste, and gross negligence, the plaintiffs averred in greater detail the nature of the control it contended LSA exercised over Lafarge and the transaction.

It alleged that LSA controlled the Lafarge board and that, of the 16 Lafarge directors, 12 were conflicted by reason of either their employment or directorships with LSA or ongoing business relationships with Lafarge that could be terminated by LSA. It implied that Dillon Read was conflicted in that one Lafarge director — Mr. Buell — also served as a director of Swiss Bank Corporation, which is the parent of Dillon Read, and that, shortly after rendering its fairness opinion, Dillon Read was selected to co- ⁵⁹² manage the underwriting of $650 million in Lafarge notes used to finance the purchase of the Redland assets, and that Arthur Andersen was also conflicted in that it provided accounting services to Lafarge. Three members of the special committee — Cohen, Malone, and Southern — it said, had an irreparable conflict of interest through their affiliation with companies that had significant business relationships with Lafarge. The plaintiff also complained that Collomb and Kasriel, who represented LSA in the negotiations, voted for the proposal as Lafarge directors, inferring, as a result, that the negotiations were not arms length.

With respect to the transaction itself, the amended complaint alleged that the true value of the Redland assets purchased by Lafarge from LSA was between $480 and $523 million, and that Lafarge therefore overpaid by between $165 and $210 million. Demand on the Lafarge board, it averred, was unnecessary in light of the allegations of waste and, in any event, would have been futile. Consistent with the initial complaint, the plaintiff asserted that any demand would have been futile because (1) a majority of the allegedly independent directors actively participated in the wrongful conduct, which was the direct and proximate result of their grossly negligent failure to inform themselves adequately as to the company’s affairs and harmful effects of the proposed purchase; (2) the directors of Lafarge received substantial compensation as board members and, in light of LSA’s domination and control of Lafarge, had an incentive to appease LSA in order to maintain their position on the board; and (3) in light of the corporate insurance policies, neither the directors nor the company could be expected to pursue the claims made by the plaintiff. Finally, as alleged in the initial complaint, the plaintiff contended that any demand on the stockholders to institute the action would be futile because of, one, the impracticality of contacting all of the stockholders, and, two, the control exercised by LSA.

The amended complaint also was met with a motion to dismiss, on the same three grounds, which was denied. With respect to demand futility, the court treated the motion as ⁵⁹³ presenting two more focused issues: (1) if a majority of the board are “interested directors,” does the “business judgment” rule apply, and (2) when a majority stockholder is involved in the transaction, how may director interest be established? The court noted that the Maryland courts had not ruled directly on those issues and that both sides therefore relied heavily on Delaware law. It accepted that, for reasons of public policy, it was incumbent upon a shareholder to make a demand on the board of directors before bringing a derivative action and that, in the absence of such a demand, the plaintiff must allege facts that would demonstrate that such a demand would have been futile.

Applying Delaware law, as enunciated in Pogostin v. Rice, 480 A.2d 619, 624 (Del.1984), the court concluded that the test for determining demand futility requires a bifurcated analysis in which the facts alleged in the complaint are examined to determine whether they create a reasonable doubt that (1) the directors are disinterested and independent, and (2) the challenged transaction was the product of a valid exercise of business judgment. Under that test, if the court “is satisfied that the plaintiff has alleged facts with particularity which, taken as true, support a reasonable doubt as to either aspect of [that] analysis, the futility of demand is established and the court’s inquiry ends.” Applying that Delaware test, the court concluded that, on the facts alleged in the amended complaint, there was a reasonable doubt as to whether at least 12 of Lafarge’s 16 directors were independent, disinterested directors. The six that were also employees or directors of LSA had a direct interest in the transaction. Six of the remaining 10, it found, were directors or employees of other corporations “that have substantial business interests with Lafarge” and that, “[w]hile these interests are not with [LSA], they are nevertheless substantially influenced by or controlled by [LSA] by virtue of its controlling interest in Lafarge.” A majority of the special committee, the court also found, consisted of directors having those business relationships with Lafarge.

Those facts, along with others pled, the court concluded, were “sufficient to create a reasonable doubt about the disinterestedness of the ⁵⁹⁴ majority of the board approving the transaction, including the majority of the special committee” and that reasonable doubt was “sufficient to establish demand futility.” The court distinguished the various Maryland cases cited by the parties. In that regard, it concluded that, to the extent our holding in Parish v. Milk Producers Assn., 250 Md. 24 , 242 A.2d 512 (1968), could be read as a ruling that demand futility is established when the pleadings simply allege that a majority of the board participated in the wrongdoing, as the plaintiffs contended, such a reading was overbroad, as it would “make the prerequisite of a demand or pleading demand futility meaningless.” The court also rejected the notion, drawn from Edge Partners, L.P. v. Dockser, 944 F.Supp. 438 (D.Md.1996), that a lack of insurance coverage for named directors can excuse a demand. After an unsuccessful interlocutory appeal from that ruling by the defendants, discovery ensued, following which the defendants, through a motion for summary judgment, asked the court to revisit the demand issue. By that time, the status of the 10 Lafarge directors who were not actually serving as directors or officers of LSA had been documented with evidence and thus did not have to be resolved based solely on the allegations in the amended complaint.

As noted, the plaintiffs did not challenge the independence of three of them — Rodgers, Dauman, and MacAvoy. None of the remaining seven had any direct connection with LSA. The facts posited as establishing a reasonable doubt as to their independence were as follows: (1) Ms. Malone served on the boards of the Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond and several major corporations, including Dell Computer Corp., Hasbro, Inc., Houghton Miff-lin Company, SAIC Corp., Union Pacific Resources Corporation, and Lowe’s Companies. In 1997, Lowe’s purchased approximately $2.1 million of gypsum wallboard from Lafarge, and in 1998, it purchased approximately $5.8 million of that product from Lafarge; there is no evidence that it did any business with LSA.

Those purchases by Lowe’s constituted ⁵⁹⁵ the close business connection alleged to have made her an interested, non-independent director. Ms. Malone’s unrebut-ted affidavit stated that she had. no involvement in those purchases and that, to the best of her knowledge, they were routine commercial transactions, at competitive rates, handled by employees of the two companies. She stated further that her compensation as a director of neither company was dependent on the level, profitability, or success of those routine purchases. (2) Alonzo McDonald served as Chairman and CEO of Avenir Group, Inc., development bankers.

There was no indication that Avenir did any business with either Lafarge or LSA. McDonald’s independence was questioned because Robert Murdoch, who served as a director of both Lafarge and LSA, was listed as a “principal” in Avenir. The nature of that relationship, which was valued at about $300,000, is not entirely clear from the record before us. The Circuit Court determined that Murdoch had no ownership interest in Avenir but simply, on an independent basis, invested his own funds in companies that Avenir had also invested in.

The plaintiffs have not challenged that finding. (3) Marshall Cohen was a director of several corporations, including American Barrick Gold Corporation (Barrick) and American International Group, Inc. (AIG). In 1997, Lafarge sold $1,674,000 of fly ash and cement to Barrick. In an unrebutted affidavit, Cohen asserted that those transactions were routine commercial transactions, at competitive rates, handled by employees of the two companies, that they had never been discussed or voted on by the directors of either company, and that his compensation package from neither corporation has any relation to the level, profitability, or success of commercial transactions in the ordinary course of business between the two companies.

A wholly-owned subsidiary of AIG, National Union Fire Insurance Company of Pittsburgh (National Union), provided insurance to Lafarge against employee theft. Cohen affirmed that he did not sit on National Union’s board, that he had no responsibility for individual transactions by National Union, and that his com ⁵⁹⁶ pensation package was not affected by the level, profitability, or success of ordinary-course-of-business commercial transactions between National Union and Lafarge. (4) Ronald Southern served on the boards of several Canadian corporations, including Xerox Canada, Inc., Chrysler Canada Ltd., and Canadian Pacific Limited. He was also Chairman of the Board and CEO of ATCO Ltd., a publicly traded Canadian corporation.

In 1996, ATCO sold just over $1 million of natural gas to Lafarge Canada, Inc.(LCI), a wholly-owned subsidiary of Lafarge. In an unrebutted affidar vit, Mr. Southern averred that ATCO’s rates for the sale of natural gas were totally regulated under Canadian law, that LCI was not a major customer of ATCO, and that, because the price was regulated, ATCO was indifferent as to whether it sold natural gas to LCI or any other particular customer. He added that he never had any responsibility for entering into transactions to sell natural gas to LCI or anyone else — that it was a routine commercial transaction, at fully regulated rates, handled by employees of the two companies. Canadian Pacific Limited, a Canadian railroad, sold $9.17 million of rail transportation service to Lafarge in 1997 and $7.38 million in 1998.

Southern attested that those transactions were routine commercial transactions, at competitive rates, handled by employees of the two companies, that they had never come before the board of either company, that he had no responsibility for them, and that his compensation package was not affected by that business. (5) John Redfern served as Chairman of the board of LCI and was also a director of Montreal Trust Company from the 1970’s to 1997. He had retired from the trust company board before he voted on the Lafarge-LSA transaction. Over the years, Montreal Trust Company provided certain pension and trust services for Lafarge, including the mailing of proxy statements.

The record does not indicate how much compensation it received for those services. In an unrebutted affidavit, Redfern asserted that he had no responsibility for the provision of those services, which were routine commercial transactions, that they were not discussed at board meetings, ⁵⁹⁷ and that his compensation package was unaffected by the business. (6) Bertin Nadeau served as a director of Sun Life Assurance Company of Canada (Sun). In 1997 and 1998, Sun provided life insurance to employees of LCI.

The amount of business was not disclosed in the record. In an unrebutted affidavit, Nadeau asserted that, as a director of Sun, he had no responsibility for individual insurance agreements, that the business between Sun and LCI was routine commercial business at competitive rates handled by employees of the two companies and was never discussed at board meetings, and that his compensation package was unaffected by that business. (7) Thomas Buell was a director of several corporations, including B.C. Gas, Inc. and Placer Dome, Inc. In 1996, B.C. Gas sold $3.8 million of natural gas to LCI; in 1997 and 1998, the annual sales amounted to $1.4 million and $1.1 million, respectively. As with the case of ATCO, these sales were at regulated prices, and thus B.C. Gas was indifferent to whether it sold gas to LCI or any other particular customer.

According to Buell’s unrebutted affidavit, LCI was not a major customer of B.C. Gas, the business with LCI was routine commercial business at fully regulated rates, for which he had no responsibility, the transactions were not discussed at any board meeting, and his compensation package was unaffected by them. In 1997 and 1998, Placer Dome purchased $1.68 million and $2.16 million in fly ash, cement, and concrete from Lafarge. Buell asserted that these were routine commercial transactions at competitive rates that were handled by employees of the two companies, that he had no responsibility for them, that they were not discussed at any board meetings, and that his compensation package was unaffected by them. On this evidence, and continuing to use the two-prong standard adopted by the Delaware court, the court concluded that the plaintiffs had failed to establish a reasonable doubt that a majority of the Lafarge board lacked independence.

In effect, it concluded that 10 of the 16 directors were indepen ⁵⁹⁸ dent. The court also concluded that there was no genuine dispute that Lafarge received substantial assets from LSA in return for the consideration paid and, quoting from Grobow v. Perot, 539 A.2d 180, 189 (Del.1988) (quoting Saxe v. Brady, 184 A.2d 602, 610 (Del.Ch.1962)), declared that the plaintiffs had failed to show that “what the corporation has received is so inadequate in value that no person of ordinary, sound business judgment would deem it worth that which the corporation has paid.” Upon those findings, the court held that demand was not excused and dismissed the action for failure to make a pre-suit demand on the Lafarge board. The court did not address the alternative defense of failure to make a demand on the stockholders of Lafarge; nor did it rule upon the personal jurisdiction and sufficiency of process defenses. DISCUSSION Plaintiffs make, essentially, two complaints in this appeal.

First, they assert that the question of whether a demand upon the directors for remedial action would have been futile is one that is to be addressed in a motion to dismiss, based upon the allegations in the complaint, and is not to be revisited as a factual matter on summary judgment. That question was properly, and finally, resolved, they urge, when the court denied the second motion to dismiss. Second, they contend that the burden is on the defendants to prove that the transaction was fair and that, on the record in this case, the defendants failed to meet that burden, especially in the context of summary judgment. Under either our holding in Parish v. Milk Producers Assn., supra, 250 Md. 24 , 242 A.2d 512 , or the standard adopted by the Delaware courts and applied here by the Circuit Court, they maintain that the court erred in concluding that a demand would not have been futile.

We shall deal with both of those complaints, but in a somewhat reordered format. Derivative Actions As a general rule, the business and affairs of a corporation are managed under the direction of its board of ⁵⁹⁹ directors. Except to the extent that a transaction or decision must, by law or by virtue of the corporate charter, be approved by the shareholders, the directors, either directly or through the officers they appoint, exercise the powers of the corporation. See Maryland Code, § 2-401 of the Corporations and Associations Article.

Shareholders are not ordinarily permitted to interfere in the management of the company; they are the owners of the company but not its managers. Thus, any exercise of the corporate power to institute litigation and the control of any litigation to which the corporation becomes a party rests with the directors or, by delegation, the officers they appoint. As a check on this broad managerial authority, directors are required to perform their duties in good faith, in a manner they reasonably believe to be in the best interest of the corporation, and with the care that an ordinarily prudent person in a like position would use under similar circumstances. Id. § 2-405.1(a).

That obligation runs, however, to the corporation and not, at least directly, to the shareholders. The shareholder’s derivative action was developed in the mid 19th Century as an extraordinary equitable device to enable shareholders to enforce a corporate right that the corporation failed to assert on its own behalf. That right could include the recovery of losses occasioned by self-dealing or fraudulent or grossly negligent misconduct on the part of the corporate directors or officers. As Fletcher describes it: “The nature of the derivative proceeding is two-fold.

First, it is the equivalent of a suit by the shareholders to compel the corporation to sue. Second, it is [a] suit by the corporation, asserted by the shareholder on its behalf, against those liable to it. The corporation is the real party in interest and the shareholder is only a nominal plaintiff. The substantive claim belongs to the corporation....

The proceeding is typically brought by a minority shareholder, because a majority or controlling shareholder can usually persuade the corporation to sue in its own name.” ⁶⁰⁰ 13 William Meade Fletcher et al., Cyclopedia of the Law of Private Corporations § 5941.10 (1995 Rev. Vol); see also Aronson v. Lewis, 473 A.2d 805, 811 (Del.1984). The fact that the action is on behalf of the corporation, rather than the shareholder, has significant implications, not the least of which is the extent to which the corporation can control the litigation after it is filed. The Demand/Futility Rule Both because a shareholder’s derivative action necessarily intrudes upon the managerial prerogatives ordinarily vested in the directors and to curtail collusive activities by the corporation and mischief and abuse on the part of disgruntled shareholders, the law soon attached to this new mechanism the condition that, before being allowed to proceed with a derivative action, a shareholder first make a good faith effort to have the corporation act directly and explain to the court why such an effort either was not made or did not succeed. In its initial formulation, this requirement was quite strict.

See Hawes v. Oakland, 104 U.S. 450, 460-61 , 26 L.Ed. 827, 832 (1881), in which the Court stated: “[B]efore the shareholder is permitted in his own name, to institute and conduct a litigation which usually belongs to the corporation, he should show, to the satisfaction of the court, that he has exhausted all the means within his reach to obtain, within the corporation itself, the redress of his grievances, or action in conformity to his wishes. He must make an earnest, not a simulated effort, with the managing body of the corporation, to induce remedial action on their part, and this must be made apparent to the court. If time permits, or has permitted, he must show, if he fails with the directors, that he has made an honest effort to obtain action by the stockholders as a body, in the matter of which he complains. And he must show a case, if this is not done, where it could not be done, or it was not reasonable to require it.” In Federal actions, the requirement of a demand, unless lawfully excused, remains fixed as both a substantive and ⁶⁰¹ pleading prerequisite.

Proeedurally, Fed.R.Civ.P. 23.1 requires that a complaint in a derivative action “shall also allege with particularity the efforts, if any, made by the plaintiff to obtain the action the plaintiff desires from the directors or comparable authority and, if necessary, from the shareholders or members, and the reasons for the plaintiffs failure to obtain the action or for not making the effort.” In Kamen v. Kemper Fin. Servs., Inc., 500 U.S. 90, 95-97 , 111 S.Ct. 1711, 1716 , 114 L.Ed.2d 152, 163-64 (1991), involving a Maryland corporation, the Court made clear that pre-suit demand was not merely a pleading requirement, but, through incorporation of State law, a substantive one: “To prevent abuse of this remedy, however, equity courts established as a ‘precondition for the suit’ that the shareholder demonstrate that ‘the corporation itself had refused to proceed after suitable demand, unless excused by extraordinary conditions.’ Ross v. Bernhard, [ 396 U.S. 531, 534 , 90 S.Ct. 733, 736 , 24 L.Ed.2d 729, 734 (1970) ]. The purpose of the demand requirement is to ‘affor[d] the directors an opportunity to exercise their reasonable business judgment and “waive a legal right vested in the corporation in the belief that its best interests will be promoted by not insisting on such right.’ ” [citation omitted] Ordinarily, it is only when demand is excused that the shareholder enjoys the right to initiate ‘suit on behalf of his corporation in disregard of the directors’ wishes.’ [citation omitted] In our view, the function of the demand doctrine in delimiting the respective powers of the individual shareholder and of the directors to control corporate litigation clearly is a matter of ‘substance,’ not ‘procedure.’ ” 3 See also Levine v. Smith, 591 A.2d 194, 207 (Del.1991). Most, if not all, of the States have adopted some version of this requirement as part of their corporation law.

See Debo ⁶⁰² rah A, DeMott, Shareholder Derivative Actions: Law and Practice § 5.03 (1999). In Parish v. Milk Producers Assn., supra, 250 Md. 24, 81-82 , 242 A2d 512, 544 , we regarded it as well-established that courts would not ordinarily entertain a derivative suit by a shareholder on behalf of a corporation “until it appears that the intra-corporate remedies have been unsuccessfully pursued by the complaining stockholder,” which means that, “generally speaking, the complaining stockholder must make demand upon the corporation itself to commence the action, and show that this demand has been refused or ignored.” We added, however, that that general rule “is subject to a well-recognized exception, i.e., that no such prior demand is required when it would be futile.” Evolution of the Futility Exception As noted, the concept of a shareholder’s derivative action, to which was attached the demand requirement and the futility exception, was a common law development established and fashioned by the courts as a justifiable, but limited, intrusion upon the general authority of the directors to manage the business affairs of the corporation, and, for most of the century-and-a-half of its existence, it remained largely within the domain of the common law. In Maryland, it retains its common law status. 4 In much of the country, however, it is now governed by statutes, many of which have either repealed or significantly curtailed the futility exception. We have not visited the doctrine since Parish in 1968, and we therefore ⁶⁰³ need to take account of what has transpired in the meanwhile — both by statute and through the course of common law development in other States.

We first entertained the device of the derivative action in Booth v. Robinson, 55 Md. 419 (1881), where shareholders of a corporation sued the directors to recover for the loss in value of their stock by reason of what they asserted was willful and fraudulent mismanagement of the affairs of the corporation. We recognized that directors were not to be held accountable “for the consequences of unwise or indiscreet management, if their conduct is entirely due to mere default or mistakes of judgment,” but that they would be liable upon clear proof of “fraud, combination, or gross negligence.” Id. at 438 . We observed that, in such cases, the proper party to complain was the corporation itself, because the duty owing by the directors is to the corporation and not directly to the shareholders, and thus held that “to enable a shareholder ... to maintain a bill against directors for such fraud or breaches of trust, he must allege and show, not only the violations of duty or breaches of trust on the part of the directors, but that he as stockholder has been damnified thereby, and that the corporation has failed or refused to take the proper legal steps for the redress of the wrong.” Id. at 439 (emphasis added). Booth came to this Court from a judgment entered on the merits after trial.

The complaint was directed primarily against two of the six directors, who were charged with deliberately ruining the company in order to achieve personal objectives, emanating from their connection with competing interests, that conflicted with their duties to the corporation. In the course of our discussion of the requirement that the plaintiff show that the corporation had failed to take corrective action, we stated that “if the allegations of the bill are sustained by proof that a majority of the shares are owned by [the competing company] and that a majority of the directors are adverse to the interest of the plaintiffs, and are combined against them, and would, by means of the control that they exercise, frustrate and defeat any attempt to induce the corporation to take action for the redress of the wrongs ⁶⁰⁴ alleged; such facts would be a sufficient excuse for not making or alleging a formal demand upon the corporation to take action.” Id. at 439 (emphasis added). The Court elucidated further on the futility exception in Davis v. Gemmell, 70 Md. 356 , 17 A. 259 (1889), where a shareholder sued to have a judgment that had been entered in the name of an assignee of the president of the corporation declared to be the property of the corporation. The company owned a coal mine and could have entered into a contract to supply coal to a railroad at $1.15/ton.

Instead, the directors authorized the president of the company, individually, to enter into the contract and to pay the company 10 cents/ton for the coal taken. When the railroad breached the contract, the president recovered a judgment, which he assigned to a third party. The action by the directors, we held, constituted a plain breach of trust on their part and was in fraud of the rights of the stockholders. Noting that redress of such injury was normally for the corporation to pursue and that, to give stockholders a standing in court, “it must appear that the directors have refused to institute proceedings in behalf of the company, or that for certain reasons they are not proper persons to be entrusted with prosecuting the suit,” we concluded: “If, however, the directors, or officers of a corporation having the authority to direct its litigation, are themselves guilty of the wrong complained of, a Court of equity will interfere at the instance of the stockholders, and this, too, without proof of a demand and refusal on the part of the corporate authorities.

And for the reason that a demand upon them would, under such circumstances be useless, and further that it would be against the plainest principles of justice to permit the perpetrators of the